Quadruple Maker

Don't be fooled by the title and introduction. This is pure science fiction with a high concentration of science.

The knowledge and techniques described in the book are very rigorous and professional. I don't know if they are my peers. The science popularization of DNA computers in the new chapter is very popular, please keep it up. Reminder from the back row, this book is a bit brain-burning and has some cool points but it is not a traditional cool book. If you are looking for pretense and slap in the face, please don't go into it by mistake. In addition, it is only recommended for people with a high school level of knowledge or above. Finally, the comments made by the author and your readers are a bit mixed, so don't be led astray. It's not easy to find science fiction that doesn't contain mystery. Don't listen to those NT comments and write books into mystery.

"Binary and ternary systems, and the principles of quaternary computers" "Why did genetic coding choose "quaternary system" instead of the "binary system" of computer systems? Computers have successfully proven that "binary" is a concise and efficient encoding scheme (and complements the physical hardware) that can transmit and map information of any complexity. But most of the genetic codes use 4 kinds of bases (DNA is ATCG, RNA is AUCG) instead of 2 kinds of bases. Why is this? Computers and genes: Computer application "binary" actually implies two levels, namely: coding and calculation. Encoding - is the use of "two types of numbers" to express and transmit information. Calculation - is to control "two types of numbers" to complete the control of information (including expression and transmission). Then, genetic coding is the arrangement and combination of bases, which can complete the expression and transmission of genetic information, and genetic computing is the control of bases, which can complete the control of genetic information. Base - simply put, it is a cyclic nitrogen-containing compound. For coding, bases can be regarded as a kind of "abstract number", two kinds of bases are two kinds of "numbers", four kinds of bases are four kinds of "numbers", and the sequence formed by "digital encoding", in terms of "information connotation", there is no essential difference between "binary" and "quaternary". Because different encoding schemes can express and convey the same information, just like different languages ​​can describe the same meaning, but the redundancy and energy consumption of information encoding are different. For information storage, computers are based on the two-dimensional planar structure of physical media (that is, information is stored on a plane), while the storage of genetic information is based on the three-dimensional space structure of biomolecules. These two forms have different functional complexity, but both can dynamically change information. The computer changes the microstructure of the storage medium, and the gene itself is microscopic, so its structure is information, and modifying the structure is modifying information, such as DNA methylation. DNA methylation - is a form of chemical modification of DNA that can change genetic expression without changing the DNA sequence. The process is to add methyl groups to DNA molecules under the action of transferase. For calculations, computers are based on abstract mathematics ("binary" implies the carry algorithm), and their calculation processes are mathematical logical operations, while genes are based on concrete mathematics, and their calculation processes are chemical changes and quantum effects. Abstract mathematics is a summary of human understanding of the laws of nature. Concrete mathematics - is the product of "evolution" and random trial and error under the laws of nature. Obviously, concrete mathematics must contain natural laws that can be described by abstract mathematics, but "evolution" does not require "cognition" of natural laws, only "observance"; and humans use abstract mathematics to simulate and calculate concrete mathematics, but humans may not be able to recognize the abstract mathematics in all natural laws. In summary, it can be seen that computers and genes can find one-to-one corresponding patterns in the encoding, storage and calculation of information, and both systems can complete the expression, transmission and control of information. In Stealing In the book "Fire", based on current research results in synthetic biology, the author imagines a possible future scenario: "By treating the four letters of the genetic code as 1s and 0s in computer coding, synthetic biology allows us to program living cells as simply as we program computers. What happens once the code is written? Send it to a DNA (gene) synthesizer, and within a few days, you will receive a freeze-dried vial containing your genetic creation in the express package. "So, in the process of evolution, the genetic code chose "4 bases" instead of "binary" in order to complete the "task" of information inheritance. This is a question worth pondering. Before this question, we need to ask one more question - if gene encoding uses "two kinds of bases", can the "task" of information inheritance be also completed? Gene "binary" encoding In fact, if you use "binary", genes can still encode the same function. Now there are 3 bases, encoding a codon. There are 4 base options for each base position, so the types of codons are: 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 types. Codon - refers to the rule that in the messenger RNA molecule, every three adjacent nucleotides form a group and represent a certain amino acid during protein synthesis. Similarly, if there are 2 base options for each base position, then more base positions can be used to encode one codon. For example, if 6 base positions encode one codon, the same type and number of codons can be encoded, that is: 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64 types. But the problem is that there are more bases encoding codons. This "arrangement growth" extends to the entire DNA chain, and it becomes very error-prone, because binary encoding of a codon requires the correct arrangement of 6 bits (six 2's), while quaternary encoding only requires the correct arrangement of 3 bits (three 4's). At the same time, this will consume more energy, the DNA structure will become longer and more complex, and a series of other problems. Gene "ternary" coding In fact, if you use "ternary", gene coding is no problem. One codon can determine an amino acid. In theory, 64 codons can determine 64 amino acids, but in practice there are only more than 20 amino acids. The reason is that multiple codons can correspond to the same amino acid, and there are some special codons that represent the "start" and "termination" instructions for coding peptide chains. Among them, there are three types of stop codons - which do not correspond to any amino acid. Peptide chain - is a chain structure composed of multiple amino acids connected to each other and containing multiple peptide bonds. Peptide bond - is a chemical bond that connects two amino acids. So, more than 20 kinds of amino acids actually only need 3 kinds of bases (ternary system) and 3 base positions, that is: 3 x 3 x 3 = 27 kinds. But in this way, the codons lose their degeneracy, which reduces the amino acid's "resistance" to harmful mutations. Codon degeneracy - in molecular biology, refers to the phenomenon that the same amino acid has two or more codons. Because one or two codons can be mutated into a variety of possibilities, but still keep the codon corresponding to the same amino acid, thus ensuring the stability of the function of the amino acid (and the upper peptide chain and protein). Furthermore, if random mutation produces a stop codon (there are 3 types), the synthesis of the peptide chain will be stopped immediately, which will produce very serious functional errors. Obviously, the proportion of ternary stop codons (3/27) is about 2.4 Times the proportion of quaternary stop codons (3/64) - this multiple will form a considerable mutation accumulation effect in the coding process of billions of codons. It can be seen that the "quaternary" encoding is not "concise", but it is this redundancy that can greatly improve the fault tolerance of genetic encoding (that is, reduce harmful mutations), thereby improving the stability of evolution. What is the "quaternary system" To sum up, the "quaternary system" - using 4 kinds of bases (coding), is not the only solution for genes to complete the "task" of information inheritance. There are two important reasons why this solution can win during the evolution process, namely: redundancy and randomness. Regarding redundancy, its biggest benefit is fault tolerance. The principle is to allow errors to occur on "redundant", thus avoiding "non-redundant" errors. For computers, redundancy is often used to increase fault tolerance. Even for quantum computers, "redundancy verification" is a necessary functional step - because the result of quantum computing is a probability, and to verify the probability, statistical data is needed. The principle is: use the statistical results of "redundant" operations to compare and judge the correctness of the results of "non-redundant" operations. Of course, evolution does not use "infinite redundancy" to ensure "infinite correctness". Its principle is "enough is enough", and how to achieve this "enough" relies on randomness. As for randomness, its most important role is random trial and error. Natural evolution discovered the "quaternary system" as "just enough" in the process of random trial and error. Then the "quaternary system" was selected and became the coding of genes. We can see that the "quaternary system" balances fault tolerance and sufficiency very well, so that unfavorable mutations in evolution can be reduced to a level that ensures the stability and sufficiency of the upper-level functions. At the same time, the complexity and energy consumption of the encoding process can also be maintained at a stable and sufficient balance. Therefore, the "quaternary system" is actually a probability product produced by random trial and error and can adapt to the environment. It is conceivable that the once "binary" or "ternary" genetic codes may also exist, but they have been eliminated by the environment - because they cannot achieve "enough". Conclusion Natural selection, survival of the fittest, otherwise they will disappear - therefore, the "players" who can adapt to the environment are the "winners" remaining in the evolutionary process. However, adapting to the environment does not require excellence or perfection, but only needs to be enough. Because once random trial and error encounters enough, it will stop trial and error (or even inhibit trial and error), and wait for further "instructions" from environmental changes before continuing to trial and error. In fact, as long as it is enough, everything below it will die out, and those who try to pursue perfection above it will eventually die out - because perfection will lack redundancy, and then lack fault tolerance, and eventually become fragile - and just keeping it up to enough will be able to maintain the balance point of adaptation well, so that it will always exist well. ​​​​So evolution is full of randomness from a local perspective, but over a long time scale, it will show rules, and from a regular perspective, it will have a direction - randomness will become iterative. Therefore, from a microscopic perspective, evolution is random trial and error, but from an overall macro perspective, evolution is iterative trial and error. Ternary computer is a computer developed based on the ternary number system. Compared with the binary number system used by today's computers, ternary logic is closer to the way the human brain thinks: binary calculation rules are very simple but cannot fully express human ideas. In general, a proposition is not necessarily true or false, and may also be unknown. In ternary logic, the symbol 1 represents true; the symbol -1 represents false; and the symbol 0 represents unknown. This logical expression is more in line with the development trend of computers in artificial intelligence. It provides the possibility for fuzzy computing and autonomous learning of computers.

To be honest, I quite like this novel. I've read a lot of interesting articles, and it's good to change my mind occasionally. Although I can't understand those professional terms, I am very satisfied to enjoy the feeling of knowledge flowing through my mind.

A rare online article that doesn't treat readers as mentally retarded but can make people think.

I like this book very much. Even for the author's professionalism and hard core, and for the biological sciences, I have to like this book. I really hope the author can continue writing in his own style. The book has always been on the bookshelf, and the monthly votes are full. I will start the automatic subscription later. However, I feel that I can't read more every day. First, the updates are too slow. More importantly, the writing is very detailed. The various details and references make people unconsciously feel that the plot in the book is realistic and feasible. However, the plot in the book is a very bad reality, a reality where human beings have failed. One or a few geniuses can inexplicably determine the future of mankind and the world. The vast majority of people can only endure it silently, without even knowing what is happening. Such a fucked-up plot is not even completely delusional in the novel. As an ordinary person, I feel very insecure and feel bad. Destruction and destruction are indeed easier than creation and construction, but I still hope that the novel can promise a better future. After all, the reality is bad enough.

I have read about 1/3 of it and would like to share my thoughts. First of all, it is indeed a science fiction novel, but it is too scientific. As a liberal arts student, I cannot understand most of what the protagonist said. Of course, this does not affect my grasp of the plot of the entire novel. I can still see it. Who is the protagonist? What I have done and what I am going to do next feel like a Chinese language test in high school, where I have to use as many words as possible to summarize a large paragraph of information.

Very little knowledge, just a personal comment. 1 The environment has changed dramatically. Countries without weather satellites have to rely on luck when traveling, and they have lost the ability to maintain their rule. Small countries collapse, and big countries each have their own tricks. They must also be big countries in resources and high-tech manufacturing, otherwise it will be difficult to meet energy and food needs at the same time. I'm disgusted by people like Ah San, and I don't like Ying and France either. 2 The sea route is dangerous. Either build a wind-resistant giant ship, which is too expensive, or sail along the coast, where there are pirates, and it takes a long time. Traditional sea power is declining, and only countries with strong shipbuilding capabilities can become new sea power countries. 3 International finance, the collapse of the US dollar. Food energy hard currency. 4 The rise of land power, but land routes are more likely to be robbed, and armed trade will inevitably lead to the expansion of territory. 5 Global warming, the protagonist's base should be built inland.

This book can be regarded as a good starting point for serious science fiction. Why do it have so few readers?

You are more scientific, but the Homo sapiens next door has completely let himself go and started to build giant companies to conquer the world.

You'd better write physical books, online books are not suitable for you

It looks good. Is the author a relevant practitioner? It really feels like hard science fiction. Although I can't understand the data and terminology, I feel it's so awesome for some reason👍🏻. Well, at least I understood the plot. It is a story about a scientific madman who wants to be the creator and tries to subvert the world. He doesn't care about rights or countries. Like the mad scientists in all movies, because of his vision and talent that are far beyond ordinary people, he can see more and farther than ordinary people, so that he ignores ethics and morals. Others pursue the ultimate in life, human beings. I have seen several types of reptiles that appear in the book in the pet market, such as snakes, horned frogs, lizards, and turtles. I always thought they were produced through continuous cross-breeding, but I didn't expect that human technology has reached this level. It's really enlightening. I hope the author will write better and better.

Part of the plot in this book relies on scientific and technical details to drive it. Therefore, friends who have newly discovered this book, if you find it difficult to read, please read the related work first (The Little Scissors of Not Being Human). One reading will solve a thousand worries.

Bookworms who have been reading for more than ten years are used to reading books with a thumbnail. If they don't understand the book, they won't judge it. For one thing, this is a book that will be eaten to death.

This is a hard-core science fiction book that stood out to me. I love it.

Hard sci-fi that a lot of people don't like in the beginning? I'm just the opposite. Maybe he's an engineering guy. When I see hard science fiction, numbers, formulas, codes, and hard-core hoarding of goods in the apocalypse without gold fingers, I think it's a good book.

First row Water water water

Not a tragedy, not a tragedy, not a tragedy. Saying important things three times is not a tragedy.

Quickly spend your energy on updating Xiaohongshu 😡 I even forgot about your book. If I hadn't read Xiaohongshu, I really wouldn't have remembered you.

This book is different from science fiction novels like Three-Body Problem. I would like to call Three-Body Problem a liberal arts science fiction novel. I would like to call this novel of the author a science fiction novel. There is no requirement to have any level of knowledge, but at least a basic understanding of the concepts mentioned in the article is required. The author may have considered this and added an annotation after the novel.

Cai Cai is so cute, take Cai Cai away It is rare to see such an attractive heroine in the science fiction category, she is not a template character

Finally found a novel in which the character is a foreigner!

It kind of reminds me of the feeling I had when watching The Three-Body Problem before.

Finally, we lost a female character. Find the long insect quickly.

It would be nice if it could be expanded a little more