Around 1770, the Qianlong reign appeared to mark the twilight of the “High Qing,” but beneath the surface, crises were mounting. Politically, imperial power was highly centralized, while corruption ran rampant through the bureaucracy and literary inquisitions kept people under tight pressure. Tensions between Manchus and Han Chinese, as well as between bannermen and civilians, were sharp. Economically, the population was exploding and land concentration was severe. The grain tribute transport system, salt administration, and customs duties were all burdened by deep-rooted problems, while secret societies such as the White Lotus and the Society of Heaven and Earth stirred beneath the surface. Militarily, the Eight Banners had grown lax, the Green Standard Army was losing its fighting strength, and trouble threatened in the northwest among the Hui, in the southwest among the Miao, and along the southeastern coast. Abroad, the Industrial Revolution had already begun in the West, the British East India Company was expanding its influence, and the Macartney Embassy was soon to arrive in China. The world stood on the eve of upheaval.
