Why China Fell Behind and Was Bullied: Holding the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong Emperors Accountable

During the Qing dynasty under the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors, many beneficial policies were implemented, making important contributions to the development of the Chinese people. Yet from this period onward, Qing emperors and their ministers remained isolated for a long time, utterly ignorant of the modern international order and diplomatic practices that had already taken shape elsewhere in the world. As a result, when China entered the international community, it made ill-judged moves and responded poorly, marking the beginning of modern China's decline behind the West. By comparing China and the West during the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong eras, the author details the reasons China fell behind the West in modern times.